Egypt

  • Egypt was the Roman Province of Aegyptus, which occupied a similar area to modern Egypt today.

1. History

  • Cradle of Civilisation:
    • Ancient Egypt is considered to be one of the six Cradles of Civilisation, along with Mesopotamia, the Indus River, the Yellow and Yangtse Rivers in China and Mesoamerica and Peru in the Americas.
  • Pre-Dynastic Egypt:
    • The Period prior to 3,100 BCE is known as Pre-Dynastic Egypt.
  • Dynastic Egypt: The Age of the Pharaohs
    • The Period c.3,100-331 BCE is known as Dynastic Egypt and had 31 Dynasties of Pharaohs.
    • The Dynasties are divided into Three Kingdoms and their Intermediate Periods.
        • Early Dynastic Period (2950-2575 BCE) Dynasties 1-3
      • Old Kingdom (2575-2150 BCE) Dynasties 4-8
        • First Intermediate Period (2150-1975 BCE) Dynasties 9-11
      • Middle Kingdom (1975-1640 BCE) Dynasties 11-14
        • Second Intermediate Period (1640-1620 BCE) Dynasties 15-17
      • New Kingdom (1520-1075 BCE) Dynasties 18-20
        • Third Intermediate Period (1075-653 BCE) Dynasties 21-24
        • Late Period (653-332 BCE) Dynasties 25-30
        • Ptolemaic Dynasty (305-30 BCE) Dynasty 31
  • Ancient Egyptian Religion
    • The Ancient Egyptian Religion and the Osiris Myth arose in parallel to the Pharaohs.
    • The myths are preserved in the Statues and Temples of the Pharaohs who worshipped the Trinity of Gods Isis, Osiris and Horus.
  • Ancient Egyptian Calendar
    • The Egyptian Religion followed the Ancient Egyptian Calendar, which had three seasons based on the Annual Rise of the Nile.
  • The Invasions:
    • Sea Peoples (c.1200 BCE)
      • They attacked Egypt, but failed to invade.
    • The Nubians (712-664 BCE)
      • They invaded Egypt and became Dynasty 25.
    • The Assyrians (671-664 BCE)
      • They invaded Egypt, becoming Dynasty 26 under Necho I.
    • The Persian Invasion (525-404 BCE)
      • King Cambyses II successfully invaded Egypt, but was famous for his Lost Army of Cambyses, when he failed to conquer the Siwa Oasis.
      • The Persians formed the Achaemenid Dynasty number 27 which ended with Darius II.
    • Egyptian Independence (404-343 BCE)
      • Dynasties 28,29 and 30.
    • Second Persian Invasion (343-332 BCE)
      • Artaxerxes III, King of Persia, established the Second Persian Satrapy.
    • The Greek Invasion (332-30 BCE)
      • Alexander the Great annexed Egypt in Oct 332 CE.
      • Mazaces, the Persian Governor had no army to oppose the Greek Army, and changed sides to become Governor under Alexander. Egypt became a Greek Kingdom.
      • Prior to the Greek Invasion, Egypt did not have a currency, but used barter system for its economy.
    • Ptolemaic Dynasty (305-30 BCE)
  • The Different Names of Egypt and the Nile
    • Kemet:
      • During the Old Kingdom Egypt was known as ‘Kemet’ or ‘Kmt’ (Kermit). Kemet meant ‘The Black Land’, referring to the rich, black silt of the Nile.
    • ‘Hwt-ka-Ptah’:
      • Later, it became known as ‘Hwt-ka-Ptah’ meaning the Temple of Ka of (the God) Ptah, which the Greeks mispronounced as ‘Aegyptus’.
    • Misr:
      • Today the name ‘Misr’ is often used from the Arabic word ‘Misraim’, meaning ‘country’ or ‘fortress’.
    • The Nile:
      • Hapy: The Ancient Egyptian name for the Nile was ‘Hapy’ or ‘Itrow’, meaning ‘River’.
      • Piaro: In Coptic, the Nile is named ‘Piaro’, also meaning ‘River’.
  • Acquisition by Rome:
  • Timeline of this Province:
    • Between 30 BCE until 641-2 CE, Egypt became a Province of the Roman Empire.
    • The Roman Emperors were accorded the title of Pharaoh of Egypt.
  • After Augustus’ reconstituted the Republic into an Empire (27 BCE):
  • Arabia Felix in the Yemen (26-5 BCE)
    • The Prefect of Egypt, Aelius Gallus, took two Legions for this campaign. Strabo recorded that this expedition departed with 130 ships from the Port of Myos Hormos.
  • Meroitic War (27-22 BCE)
    • Strabo describes this war against Kush and Queen Candace, as lasting 5 years.
    • In 26 BCE, Aelius Gallus, marched south and invaded the Kushan Kingdom but was obliged to fall back due to epidemics.
    • Strabo (XVI.4.23) says he used Syllaeus, the Nabateaean military leader, as his guide.
    • In 23 BCE, as a result of this weakness, Candace Queen of Kush, prepared to invade Egypt and approached the Frontier at Elephantine Island with an Army.
    • In 22 BCE, the new Prefect of Egypt, Gaius Petronius, reinforced the depleted Legions, marched up the Nile, invaded Kush, and sacked Napata, Capital of the Kushans, ending any threat from the south for almost three centuries.
  • Kitos War (115-117 CE)
    • Jewish Rebellions in the Levant threatened the Grain export from Egypt.
  • Hadrian founded Antinopolis in c. 130 CE.
  • The Bucolic War (172-3 CE).
    • A Rebellion of native Egyptians under a priest called Isidorus.
  • Caracalla arrived in Alexandria in 215 CE.
    • He ordered all young men capable of military rebellion to be executed. According to Cassius Dio, this resulted in a massacre of 20,000 People.
  • Palmyrene Empire (269-274 CE).
  • Blemmyes (250-289 CE)
    • The Blemmyes conducted Invasions from Kush.
  • After Diocletian’s Reforms (297 CE):
  • After the death of Theodosius (395 CE), and the final split into Eastern Empire and Western Empire:
  • Famous Persons from this Roman Province:
    • Manetho (3rd century BCE)
      • Egyptian Priest and Historian who lived in Sebennytos.
      • He wrote ‘Aegyptiaca, The History of Egypt’ in three volumes. He translated the Hieroglyphs into Greek. It is a list of Kings by Dynasty which is still used as a work of reference today.
    • Ptolemy (c.90-c.168 CE)
      • He was an Astronomer and Cartographer who lived and worked at Alexandria.

2. Geography

  • Capital City:
  • Chief Cities:
  • Location Today:
    • Egypt.
  • Neighbouring Roman Provinces:
  • Climate and Temperature Today:
    • 97% of Egypt is Desert, and forms the eastern part of the Sahara.
    • All irrigation has always traditionally been derived from the annual flooding of the Nile. Today, water is supplied from the Aswan Dam on the Nile.
    • Sandstorms are a frequent occurrence.
  • Geographical Features
  • Lower Egypt
  • Upper Egypt
    • This was a the rocky canyon, consisting of two narrow strips of land on either side of the Nile, bordered by mountain ranges, up to the Cataracts of the Nile.
  • The Eastern Desert
    • To the east of the Nile, the Eastern Desert contains mountain ranges that reach the Red Sea.
  • The Western Desert
    • To the west of the Nile, the Western Desert covers two thirds of Egypt.
    • It contains the Gilf Kebir Plateau (Alt. 3,280 ft or 1,000m), The Great Sand Sea, The Siwa Oasis with the Temple of the Oracle, The Qattara Depression whose lowest point is 436 ft (133m) below sea level, was featured in the 1958 Film ‘Ice Cold in Alex’, the Farafra Depression, and the Uweinat Mountains.
  • Main Rivers:
  • The Nile:
  • Mountain Ranges:
    • Mountain Ranges of the Sinai Peninsular.
      • Mount St. Catherine 8,625 ft (2,629m) is the highest peak in Egypt.
      • It is next to Mount Sinai 7,497 ft (2,285m),
    • Mountain Ranges of the Eastern desert.
    • Mountain Ranges of the Western Desert.
  • The Sahara Desert:
    • The Sahara Desert extends across North Africa from the Atlantic to the Red Sea.
  • The ‘Great Sand Sea’:
    • this is the Sahara Desert between western Egypt and eastern Libya. However, only 7% of its area consists of Dunes.
  • The Nile Delta and the Nile:
    • It irrigates the Sahara Desert in northern Egypt.
    • Further south, the Desert contains mountain ranges both east and west of the Nile, which runs from south to north through them.
  • Islands:
  • The Red Sea:
  • Flora and Fauna:
  • Flora:
  • Fauna:
    • The Camel, Dromedary, Scarab beetle.
    • Western Desert:
      • Lesser Egyptian Jerboa, Giza Gerbil, Rhim Gazelle, Dorcas Gazelle, Ruppell’s Fox, Barbary Sheep. Birds: greater hoopoe-lark, white-crowned wheatear, spotted sandgrouse
    • Eastern Desert:
      • Ruppell’s fox, Blandford’s fox, Nubian ibex, striped hyena. Birds: sand partridge, mourning wheatear.
    • Nile Valley and Delta:
      • Birds: almost 500 species of birds have been recorded in Egypt: vultures, eagles, hawks, owls, falcons, storks, herons, egrets, flamingos, pelicans, quail, sunbirds and golden orioles. Egypt is on a migratory route and over 200 species of migrant Birds pass through each year.
      • Snakes: 36 varieties including the Egyptian cobra, horned viper, false smooth snake, and sand boa. There are Geckos and lizards.
      • The Nile crocodile and the African softshell turtle live in Lake Nasser. (The Aswan Dam removed the food source for crocodiles down to the Delta and they disappeared).
      • Fish: over 100 species of fish live in the Nile.
    • Red Sea:
      • Sea Mammals: Green turtle, Manatees, Dolphins, Minke whale, Humpback whale and Bryde’s Whale, dugongs (sea cow) and seals.
      • Fish: 44 species of shark, sailfish, marlin, swordfish, moray eel, stonefish, pufferfish, cuttlefish.
      • Invertebrates: Portuguese Man o’ War, starfish, octopus.

3. Political Organisation

  • Egypt was divided into Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt:
  • Description:
    • Ancient Egypt was originally two different Kingdoms with different dialects and customs, which were eventually united together by the Pharaohs, around 3,100 BCE. Egypt consisted of the Nile Delta and two narrow strips of land on either side of the Nile.
    • The two Divisions were then subdivided into 42 Nomes based on City States.
    • Each city was also the residence of one of the 42 Gods in the Ancient Egyptian Religion. This system had remained virtually unchanged for 3,000 years until the Reforms of Diocletian in 307-8 CE, when they were subdivided into smaller units called Pagi.
  • Lower Egypt
    • This included the Nile Delta and had 20 Nomes or Divisions which were numbered 1 to 20 from south to north in each area. Memphis (near Cairo) was Nome number 1.
  • Upper Egypt
  • Fort Babylon
    • Located near Cairo, it was built on 30 N, and commanded the Border between Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt.
    • It was the collection point for Tolls paid on the Nile in either direction. (The area between Cairo and the Qena Bend is sometimes known as Middle Egypt, although technically it is a part of Upper Egypt.)
  • Governor:
    • The Prefect of Egypt: Praefectus Aegypti.
      • Pay: 75,000 Denarii per annum.
      • Unusually, Egypt was ruled by a Prefect, based in Alexandria, who commanded the two Legions. He held Office for between 3 to 4 years. Sometimes, he was appointed Prefect of the Praetorian Guard either before or after serving in Egypt.
      • The Prefect had four main tasks:
        1. To ensure the collection of Grain and on time sailing of the Alexandrian Grain Fleet.
        2. Defend the Southern Frontier from Kush and Ethiopia and prevent Rebellions that might jeopardise the export of Grain to Rome.
        3. Travel throughout Egypt, acting as a judge in each local court and hearing petitions. These visits allowed the Prefect to keep in touch with the local magistrates, who also acted as the Tax Collectors.
        4. To ensure the camel caravans carrying the Red Sea cargoes from Myos Hormos and Berenice safely reached the warehouses on the Nile at Coptos, by maintaining a series of fortified watering holes called Hydreumata.
    • Known Prefects of Egypt:
      • Gaius Cornelius Gallus (30-26 BCE):
        • The first Prefect of Egypt. In 29 BCE he led a campaign to supress a Revolt in Thebes. He later fell into disgrace and was recalled by Augustus, and the Roman Senate sent him into Exile.
      • Aelius Gallus (26-24 BCE):
        • The second Prefect of Egypt. In 26-5 BCE Aelius Gallus, took two Legions for a disastrous campaign against Arabia Felix in the Yemen. Strabo records that this expedition departed with 130 ships from the Port of Myos Hormos. He returned having lost most of his army.
        • In 26 BCE, Aelius Gallus, marched south and invaded the Kushan Kingdom but was obliged to fall back due to epidemics.
        • In 23 BCE, as a result of this weakness, Candace Amanirenus the Queen of Kush, prepared to invade Egypt and approached the Frontier at Elephantine Island with an Army.
      • Gaius Petronius (24-20 BCE):
        • The third Prefect of Egypt. He reinforced the depleted legions, marched up the Nile and invaded the Kingdom of Kush with its Capital at Meroe, and razed the city of Napata, Capital of the Kushans, in 22 BCE, ending any threat from the south for almost three centuries.
      • Publius Rubrius Barbarus (c. 20-12 BCE).
        • The fourth Prefect of Egypt.
      • Other notable Prefects:
        • Lucius Seius Strabo (14-15 CE).
        • Marcus Petronius Mamertinus (133-137 CE)
        • Gaius Avidius Heliodorus (137-142 CE)
  • Tribes and Population:
    • Greeks:
    • Copts:
      • Had to pay the Poll Tax and were prohibited from serving in the Roman military.

4. Military Organisation

  • Navy:
  • Classis Alexandrina
    • Based in the Port of Alexandria. Its Prefect was paid 60,000 Denarii p.a.
    • Its role was to protect the Alexandrian Grain Fleet and patrol the Nile.
    • Strabo mentions Myos Hormos as being the port of disembarcation for the failed Military Expedition returning from Arabia, organised under the Governor Aelius Gallus 26-24 BCE.
    • However, this does not confirm the presence of a permanent Red Sea Galley Fleet.
  • Defensive Works:
    • A chain of Forts defended the mouths of the Nile Delta (they had existed since Antiquity).
    • Double Legionary Fortress at Alexandria.
    • A chain of signalling Forts between the Nile at Coptos and the Red Sea at Myos Hormos. They were positioned on the tops of mountains above the caravan road, so as to be intervisible with each other.
    • Elephantine Island had a Garrison fort to protect the frontier with Meroe.
  • Main Threats:
    • Internal:
      • Threat from Riots by the Alexandrian Mob, one reason for their being two Legions based there.
      • The Legions’ main role was to protect the Alexandrian Grain Fleet.
    • External threat:
      • During the Early Empire, a threat via the Nile from the Nubians to the south
      • This ended any threat from the south for three centuries.
      • Between 250-280 CE, invasions by the Blemmyes from Kush took place.

5. Economy

  • Chief Exports:
  • Exports to the Empire travelled with the Alexandrian Grain Fleet.
    • Grain, Porphyry (Purple Marble).
    • Precious Gems: Emeralds from the Eastern Desert.
    • Frankincense to the Empire, imported from Somalia, Arabia, India, and the East Indies via Berenice.
    • Ivory, imported from Africa.
    • Linen.
    • Wine from Egypt and the Empire exported to India.
  • Agriculture and Fishing:
  • Since there is virtually no rainfall in Egypt, all agriculture was dependant on the Annual Rise of the Nile.
    • Papyrus, Vineyards, Olive Groves and Flax Plants to make Linen, were all cultivated.
    • Grain
  • Manufacturing:
    • Pottery, Jewellery, Gemstones, Glassware, Linen, Embroidery, carved Ivory.
  • Mines:
    • Emerald Mines:
      • In Eastern desert: Wadi Gimal, Wadi Nuqrus, Wadi Sikait, Gebel Zubara and the Sikait-Zubara Region.
      • The Emerald Mines were the only source of Emeralds in the Roman Empire. The Emperor Nero used an Emerald to watch the Gladiatorial Games, Nero's Emerald.
    • Gold mines: in the Eastern Desert.
    • Copper and Turquoise Mines of Serabit el Khadim, Sinai Peninsular.
    • Beryl (Emeralds), Amethyst, Lapis Lazuli, Malachite
    • Quarries
      • Marble, Alabaster and Diorite.
      • Quarry of Mons Porpyritis, Porphyry Mountain, Porphyry means Purple in Greek: worked between 29-335 CE. All the red Porphyry Panels in the Pantheon, red porphyry togas on busts of Emperors, columns, altars, fountains, vases in Rome, came from this one quarry.
  • Mints:
  • Currency:
    • The Alexandrian Tetradrachm
      • Also known as the Billon Tetradrachm, it was equal to the Silver Denarius and was the only currency permitted in a sealed currency system which operated within Egypt until 297 CE.
    • After 297 CE, Roman Currency was minted at Alexandria.
  • Customs Duties:
    • Goods from the Red Sea were recorded when they arrived in the warehouses at Coptos.
    • But the 25% Government Import Tax was paid in Alexandria, in the local currency.
  • Alexandrian Tariff
    • This was a list of Red Sea items that Duty had to be paid on.
  • Coptos Tariff
    • It showed the tolls paid by road users to the Red Sea.

6. TransportSyria

  • The Nile
    • This river is a 4,000 mile (6,437km) waterway, with Goods being transported from the interior of Africa up to the Mediterranean, in particular Ivory and African Wild Animals from Ethiopia.
  • The Red Sea to India
  • Strabo:
  • The Monsoon:
    • Ships usually left Egypt in June or July taking advantage of the Monsoon to reach India in about 3 to 6 weeks. The Fleet returned between December and January, as the Monsoon reverses direction between October and November.
  • The Route to Africa:
  • Egypt to Morocco planned Circumnavigation
    • In 1 BCE Augustus planned a southward circumnavigation of Africa from the Red Sea in Egypt to Mogador, and the naval base of Sala Colonia, in Morocco.
    • But it never took place.
  • Number of Days taken to travel from this Province to Rome:

7. Relationship with Rome

  • Most important Province in the Roman Empire
    • Highest Tax revenue of all the Provinces.
  • Direct Rule:
    • It was ruled directly by the Roman Emperor, through the Prefect of Egypt who was appointed by the Emperor himself.
  • Sealed Province:
    • Permission was required from the Emperor for a Roman Senator to enter Egypt.
  • Sealed currency:
  • Alexandrian Grain Fleet
    • The fleet departed from Alexandria twice a year to supply Rome with one third of its Grain requirement.
    • The Grain was mostly produced in the Fayum.
  • The Sea Route to India
  • Obelisks
    • Many of Egypt’s Obelisks were shipped to Rome in huge specially constructed vessels.
  • Vulnerabilities:
    • The Province was vulnerable to Rebellion from the powerful Governors of Syria and their four Legions.
    • Egypt was lost briefly, between 260-274 CE, to the Palmyrene Empire.
    • Seneca thought Egypt was a difficult Province, always on the verge of Revolution. Two Legions were permanently stationed in Alexandria.
  • Alexandria:
    • This was a halfway house between the Roman Empire and the civilisations of the East.
  • Roman Grand Tour:
    • Wealthy Romans took holidays along the Nile in Egypt to see the Pyramids and Temples. It was part of the Roman Grand Tour, which included Sicily, Greece, Turkey and Egypt.

8. History of Christianity in this Province

  • In 33 CE, Christianity was introduced into Egypt by St. Mark the Evangelist.
  • By 300 CE, Alexandria had become the centre of Christianity, which differed from western Christianity.
  • Arianism
  • Monophysitism
    • This was followed by the Oriental Orthodox Christian Churches, mainly in Egypt and the East:
    • In 451 CE, Council of Chalcedon banned Monophysitism.
    • As a result, the Monophysite Churches separated from the Diophysite Churches, which were broadly, the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Churches.
  • Nag Hammadi Library
    • Also known as the Gnostic Gospels. The Codices were found in a jar in Nag Hammadi and contain the only complete works of the Gospel of Thomas, amongst other writings.

9. Roman Authors describing this Province

10. Crete Earthquake and Tsunami of 21 July 365 CE

  • Ammianus Marcellinus (c.325-400 CE) wrote in his ‘Res Gestae’, that a Tsunami struck Alexandria on this date. He describes the earthquake, followed by the sea withdrawing, and the subsequent tidal wave that engulfed the city of Alexandria and the coasts of the Eastern Mediterranean.
  • Alexandria and the Nile Delta were devastated. Alexandria held a day of mourning every year thereafter.
  • Thousands of People died across the Eastern Mediterranean and ships were left stranded miles inland.
  • The Event was felt by the Ancient World to have been a Divine Act of Retribution.

11. Edict of Thessalonica (380 CE)

  • The End of the Ancient Egyptian Religion:
  • Theodosius I then ordered the destruction of three famous Pagan Temples:
    • Serapium of Alexandria in Egypt (destroyed in 391 CE)
    • Temple of Apollo at Delphi in Greece (destroyed in 390 CE)
    • Temple of the Vestal Virgins in Rome (desytroyed in 394 CE)
    • He also ended the Eleusinian Mysteries in Greece in 392 CE by closing all their Sanctuaries, as being too Pagan.

12. Notable Egyptologists

  • Jean Francois Champollion (1790-1832).
    • Champollion correctly made the link between Coptic script and Egyptian Hieroglyphs and deciphered them.
  • Flinders Petrie (1853-1942):
  • Howard Carter (1874-1939):
  • Leonard Woolley (1880-1960):
  • Zahi Hawass:
    • Former Minister of State of Antiquities Affairs and Egypt’s most famous Archaeologist.

13. Films and DvD’s set in Egypt

 

Egypt

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