Roman Agriculture

The Agricultural Economy of the Ancient World was based on the production of Grain, Olive Oil and Wine.
These were produced on Farms with very large estates known as Latifundia, which by the second century CE, were the basis of the economy of the Roman Empire.

The Villa rustica were either small farms or very large farms known as Latifundia,
They existed in Italy, Sicily, Spain, North Africa, Gaul and Britannia.

By the second century CE, the Latifundia were the basis of the economy of the Roman Empire.
They had a huge workforce of Roman Slaves who worked on the Latifundia in their hundreds, and production was on an industrial scale.

Villa Romana del Casale in Sicily holds a well preserved example of a Latifundium..
This huge villa was built on the scale of a palace, and was part of a large Latifundium, mentioned as the Filosofiana in the Antonine Itinerary.
Roman Slaves

The wealth of the Roman Senatorial class, was based on the ownership of Latifundia. This was the only acceptable form of wealth permitted to them, as they could not derive income from Commerce.
To be a Roman Senator they had to own land worth a minimum of 1,000,000 sestertii.
Pliny the Elder (23-79 CE) stated that the Province of Africa Proconsularis was under the control of only six men who owned all the Latifundia.

The Latifundia produced either Olives and Olive Oil, or Grain (Wheat, Oats or Barley) or Vines producing Roman Wine on an industrial scale. They also reared Livestock (cattle and sheep).
They exported their produce around the Mediterranean in Pottery Amphorae.
The Land was drained by using the Ridge and Furrow technique.

Roman Livestock consisted of Cattle, Bulls, Oxen, Sheep and Horses. They also kept Chickens and Geese.
Villa estates could be plagued by wild animals such as Deer, Wolves, Eagles and even Aurochs (Bison), who might ravage the crops or attack the livestock.

Horses formed an important component of Ancient Warfare and the outcome of a battle could depend on the cavalry. Consequently, they were well looked after.
The Roman Legion used horses which were bred from stock which came from Estates in Persia, Cappadocia, Iberia and Libya.
According to Polybius, horses were fed on Barley and were allocated 6 Bushels per month
The Roman Historian Vegetius (5th century CE) wrote a Manual on Roman Veterinary Medicine for Horses.

The best Roman Wine came from Wine Estates in Italy, where there was even a system of first growths similar to today’s ‘Grand Cru’, discussed by Pliny the Elder.
Very large wine estates existed around Pompeii, with the stamps on Amphorae of Pompeian Wine Merchants being found from Narbonne to Bordeaux.
The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE, caused a major scarcity in wine production and an upsurge in wine prices.
Wine was also grown in estates around Rome, on the River Po, in Tuscany and on the Adriatic.
In the Provinces, wine was grown on estates in Sicily, Gaul, the Moselle, the Rhine, Spain, Portugal and Britannia.
Beaumes de Venise was mentioned by Pliny the Elder
Wine from Jerez in Spain was described by Martial

The Romans made Honey and were experts at Beekeeping using Beehives.
Honey was an expensive commodity in the Ancient World as it had multiple uses.
Bacteria cannot survive in honey due to its high acidity, so honey acted as a preservative in foods. It was also used to embalm the dead.
Honey has medicinal healing properties and was used by the population as well as the Roman Legionaries.

Fishermen were known to use pigeons to relay the location of shoals of fish to the other fishermen.
The coastlines of the Ancient World were all full of fleets of fishing boats.
Fish that did not sell could be made into a sauce called Garum. This was a fermented Fish Sauce made by the Romans and used as a condiment in Roman Cooking. It was transported in Amphorae.

Salt production and distribution was done by evaporating saltwater in coastal salt pans, and then collecting the salt that remained as a residue.

Mount Vesuvius
- Volcanoes are known to produce very rich soils that make crops grow well.
- The slopes of Mount Vesuvius held the most productive vineyards in Italy until the eruption of 79 CE.
Mount Etna
- Etna was also surrounded by highly productive Latifundia, such as the Villa Romana del Casale.

Public Land
- The use of the Public Land (Ager Publicus) of Ancient Rome, which included common pasture, was regulated by Law. Conflict over the use of Public Land formed part of the struggle between the Plebeian class and the Patrician class.
The First Land Reform (486 BCE)
- In 486 BCE, the Consul Spurius Cassius Viscellinus proposed the first Land Reform where land would be distributed amongst the Plebeians and the Latin Allies. He was opposed by the Patricians and as soon as his Consulship ended in 485 BCE, he was tried and executed.
Other attempts at Land Reform (476-467 BCE)
- Between 476 and 467 BCE, various other attempts were made at Land Reform.
Sexto-Licinian Laws (367 BCE)
- In 367 BCE, the Sexto-Licinian Laws limited the cultivation of Public Land by an individual to 500 jugera.
Gracchan Reforms (133-123 BCE)
- In 133 and 123 BCE, the Lex Sempronia Agraria were passed, although parts were later revoked. These were known as the Gracchan Reforms.
- These reforms were an attempt by two brothers, Tiberius Gracchus and Gaius Gracchus, who were respectively, Tribune of the Plebs in 133 and 123 BCE, to return Public Lands that had been commandeered by the Patricians to the urban poor. The Reforms were overturned and both brothers assassinated by mobs.

Theophrastus: (371-287 BCE)
- Ancient Greek Philosopher considered to be the Father of Botany. He wrote ‘Enquiry into Plants’ (10 Books) and ‘On the causes of Plants’ (8 Books).
Cato the Elder: (234 – 149 BCE)
- ‘De Agri Cultura’: A Manual of Farming (from Mago’s Manual) (160 BCE)
Varro: (116 – 27 BCE)
- ‘Rerum Rusticarum Libri Tres’: A Handbook on Agriculture (37 BCE)
Columella: (4-70 CE)
- ‘De Re Rustica’, a 12 volume treatise on agriculture and viticulture.
Pliny the Elder: (23-79 CE)
- Natural History Volumes IV-VII cover Botany and Agriculture.
Palladius: (c.400 CE)
- ‘Opus agriculturae’: A handbook on Agriculture in 14 Books. Book I describes a Watermill.

Villa Romana del Casale, Sicily