Parthian Empire

• The Parthian Empire (247 BCE-224 CE) was located in modern Iran, Iraq and Eastern Turkey, with its Capital City at Ctesiphon. The Roman Empire kept 8 Legions in the East to deter invasion.
• Parthia controlled the Silk Road between China and the Roman Empire until it was replaced by the Sassanid Empire (224-651 CE).

Emperors of Parthia

• Mithridates I of Parthia (171-138 BCE)
• Vologases III Emperor of Eastern Parthia (105-147 CE)
• Osroes I Emperor of Western Parthia (109-129 CE)
• Mithridates IV Emperor of Western Parthia (129-140 CE)

First War by the Roman Republic against the Parthian Empire (53 BCE)

• In 53 BCE at the Battle of Carrhae, Crassus and a Roman Army of 7 Legions and their Auxiliaries went to War against the Parthians. Crassus and his son were killed, and the Roman army was defeated with only 10,000 survivors returning home.
• This defeat was in complete contrast to Julius Caesar‘s success in the Gallic Wars (58-51 BCE), where Gaul fell to the Romans.

Parthia bids for control of the Eastern Mediterranean (42-33 BCE)

• In 42 BCE, the Parthians sent an Army to assist Brutus and Cassius at the Battle of Phillipi, against Octavian and Mark Anthony, but the battle was lost along with Syria.
• Then in 40 BCE, the General who had served under Brutus, Quintus Labienus, was given a Parthian Army, and took over Syria before invading Judaea.
• The Roman Client King of Judaea, Hyrcanus II, was deposed and sent to Persia, and a Persian Client King, Antigonus, installed in his place.
• Quintus Labienus then invaded eastern Turkey, and the East appeared to have fallen back into the Persian Empire.
• Mark Anthony then sent his General Ventidius, who reoccupied Turkey, killed Labienus, and expelled the Persian Army from Syria.
• In 38 BCE, the Persian Army invaded again, but was again expelled by Ventidius.
• In 37 BCE, in Judaea, Antigonus was deposed by Herod, the new Roman Client King. Judaea and Syria were then both securely brought back under Roman control.
• However, by 33 BCE, despite several attempts by Mark Anthony and his Army, Armenia and the surrounding region were lost to Parthian control.

Rome holds the Balance of Power in the East (29 BCE-224 CE)

• Rome maintained eight Legions in the East, so Parthia gave up its ambitions of acquiring Syria and Judaea.
• Instead Armenia, and the surrounding kingdoms of Osroene, Corduene, Iberia, Albania and Colchis continually changed hands as Client Kingdoms belonging to one side or the other.

Armenia becomes a Roman Client State (29 BCE-58 CE)

• Augustus maintained Armenia as a Roman Client State, a policy continued by subsequent Emperors until Nero.

War of Armenian Succession or Roman Parthian War (58-63 BCE)

• In 52-53 CE Parthia installed Tiridates as King, ousting the Roman candidate.
• In 54 CE Nero became Emperor and reacted straight away by sending an army under Corbulo to regain control.
• The War lasted several years, and was a series of confrontations and disasters for the Roman Armies.

Treaty of Rhandeia (63 CE)

• Under this Treaty, Nero accepted a Parthian Prince as King of Armenia, provided he travelled to Rome to be appointed by the Emperor. In 64 CE Tiridates travelled to Rome and was crowned King of Armenia by Nero.

Rebellion of Terentius Maximus (79-81 CE)

• Between 79-81 CE, the Parthian empire supported Terentius Maximus, one of several Nero Impersonators, who led a failed Rebellion in Asia Minor against Titus, but was forced to flee to Persia.

Parthian Influence in the Levant (66-135 CE)

• During the fifth century BCE, the Kings of Persia, under the Achaemenid Empire, had controlled Persia, Northern Arabia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Cyprus, the Levant, Egypt up to Libya, Asia Minor, Macedonia, Thracia, and the area around the Black Sea up to the Aral Sea.
• Parthia still had considerable influence in many of these Provinces, although they were now controlled by Rome.

Trajan’s Parthian War (114-116 CE)

• Trajan's Parthian War where he captured Ctesiphon, but had to withdraw after rebellions broke out in the Levant.

Hadrian’s re-acceptance of the Treaty of Rhandeia (117 CE)

• After Trajan’s withdrawal from Mesopotamia, Hadrian renounced any attempt to conquer Parthia, and instead reaffirmed the Treaty of Rhandeia which confirmed Armenia as a Roman Client Kingdom, in name at least.

Roman Parthian War (161-166 CE)

• The Roman Parthian War between 161-166 CE was fought under the Commander Lucius Verus, who captured Ctesiphon in 164 CE.

Septimius Severus Parthian Campaign (197 CE)

• Ctesiphon was captured again by Septimius Severus.

The Capital of Eastern Parthia

• Nisa, (Turkmenistan):
  • Nisa was the first Capital until it was destroyed by an Earthquake circa 10 BCE. It was called Mithradatkirt – ‘Fortress of Mithradates’.

The Capital of Western Parthia

• Ctesiphon (Ruins, 21 miles (35 km) south of Baghdad, Iraq)
  • Known to the Romans as Ctesiphon, but as ‘Tisfun’ to the Parthians. This was the Winter residence of the Parthian Kings.
  • Ctesiphon was a huge city of 11.5 square miles (30 square km) enclosed by huge walls, compared to Rome‘s 5.2 square miles (13.7 square km) in the fourth century CE.
  • By 570 CE it had become the world’s largest city.

The Ruins of Ctesiphon Today

• Ruins of Ctesiphon are 20 miles (32 km) southeast of Baghdad, in Iraq.
  • Great Arch of Taq-i Kisra, is the only Remaining Ruin.
  • It was the largest brick vaulted arch in the world when it was built, and was part of the Imperial Royal Palace.

The First Capital of Western Parthia

• Seleucia, was the first Capital of Western Parthia in 305 BCE after being conquered by Alexander the Great.
• It is located opposite Ctesiphon on the Tigris.

Other Cities in Parthia

• Baghdad
• Persepolis
• Charax Spasinou

Persian Gulf countries trading with Parthia:

• Kuwait
• Bahrain
• Qatar
• Dubai
• Oman
• Sharjah
• Abu Dhabi

Wars by the Roman Empire against the Parthian Empire:

Ctesiphon was captured 5 times by the Romans, the other 5 attempts were unsuccessful:

• 116 CE Ctesiphon first captured by Trajan who made domination of Parthia a priority.
  • 117 CE Returned by Hadrian who restored the Frontier along the River Euphrates.
• 164 CE Captured by General Avidius Cassius, under Lucius Verus, but abandoned by a Peace Treaty soon after.
• 197 CE Captured and Sacked by Septimius Severus its Gold and Silver confiscated and its population sold as Roman Slaves.

Sassanid Empire (224-651 CE)

Wars by the Roman Empire against the Sassanid Empire

After 224 CE The Parthian Empire is replaced by the Sassanid Empire.

• 238 CE. Planned attack:
  • 238 CE Gordian III Planned to capture Ctesiphon but never carried out the plan.
•  253 CE Shapur I invaded Armenia and defeated a Roman Army of 60,000 at the Battle of Barbalissos. He then invaded Syria and Antioch unopposed, capturing all the forts.
• 260 CE. Attempted Invasion of Parthia:
  • 260 CE Valerian captured in battle against King Shapur I and died in captivity in 262 CE. It was alleged Shapur I used him as a footstool.
• 266 CE Odeanathus, King of Palmyra, captures Ctesiphon, but is Assassinated in 267 CE.
• 283 CE Carus captured and sacked Ctesiphon.
• 295 CE Attempted Invasion:
  • 295 CE Galerius was defeated in front of the walls of Ctesiphon.
• 299 CE Captured by Galerius then returned in exchange for Armenia and western Mesopotamia.
• 363 CE. Attempted Invasion:
  • 363 CE Julian was defeated and killed outside the Walls of Ctesiphon, fighting Shapur II at the Battle of Ctesiphon.

Wars Under the Byzantine Emperors

• 627 CE Heraclius, the Byzantine Emperor besieged Ctesiphon and only left after concluding a Peace Treaty.
• 637 CE Ctesiphon was finally captured by the Islamic Arab Armies.

Relations with China

• In 101 CE the Parthian Emperor Pacorus II is recorded as having sent an Ambassador to the Han Dynasty in China, who referred to Parthia as the Anxi kingdom.
• Parthia benefited from its position on the Silk Road, acting as the middleman between China and the Roman Empire.

Ctesiphon, Iraq: