• The Romans made a lot of new inventions, such as the Hypocaust and the Codex or Folding Book.
• But they also refined many pre-existing systems in depth, such as the Aqueduct and the Mosaic.

New Technologies and Systems Invented by the Romans (19)

1. The Toga
   • Although the Ancient Greeks and Etruscans wore a garment with some similarities, the Toga was a Roman invention.
   • It was a semi-circular garment made from Wool and was the symbol of Roman Citizenship. It was denied to Foreigners, Exiled Roman Citizens and Slaves. Roman women did not wear the Toga.
2. The Hypocaust
   • The Romans invented and developed the Hypocaust to produce central heating for their Homes, Villas and Public Baths.
3. Roman Hydraulic Mining
   • The Romans pioneered Hydraulic Mining, ‘Ruina Montium’, where water sluiced out the minerals from the rock. Examples can be found at Las Medulas Gold Mine in Spain and Dolaucothi Gold Mine in Wales.
4. Roman Medicine
   • The Romans continued to develop surgical procedures which had been pioneered by the Greeks, but they invented a range of surgical tools, many of which are similar to those in use today.
5. Roman Books
   • The Romans invented Folding Books, known as the Codex, which eventually replaced the Scroll. Although the Roman use of Wax Tablets was widespread, they had already been in use since the 2nd millenium BCE.
6. Roman Newspapers
   • The Romans were the first to produce daily news sheets, known as ‘Acta Diurna’ meaning ‘Daily Acts’ or ‘Daily Public Records’, which were posted in the Forum Romanum in Rome. Copies were made and sent to the Provinces.
   • They reported on Government legislation and Legal cases, and included a section on important births, marriages and deaths. There was even a sports section with the results of the Gladiator contests and the Chariot races.
7. Roman Numerals
   • The Romans adopted the Decimal System from the Greeks and the Etruscans, but developed Roman Numerals which are still in use today.
8. Roman Sewers
   • The Romans pioneered the construction of Sewers to drain used water away into the nearest river. The sewer of Rome, the Cloaca Maxima is still in use and the sewers of York were unearthed in 1972. Public toilets kept the streets clean.
   • However, Aqueducts had already been in use in Ancient Egypt and Ancient Greece.
9. Roman Apartments
   • The Romans were the first to build blocks of flats in towns and cities. Some were between 4 to 9 stories high.
10. Roman Road Maps
    • The Romans invented a Michelin style road map showing the roads, way stations and hotels along a thin ribbon of parchment.
11. Roman Glass Windows
    • The Romans didn’t invent glass, but they were the first to use flat squares of glass in the windows of their buildings starting in c. 100 CE.
12. Corvus
    • During the First Punic War (264-241 BCE), the Roman Navy invented a wooden footbridge to board enemy vessels called the Corvus.
    • Suspended in the bows, the bridge had a large iron spike, which when dropped on the enemy vessel held it in place. The vessel was then boarded.
13. Harpax
    • The Harpax was described by Appian as being invented by Agrippa, who in 36 BCE, used it with great effect at the Battle of Naulochus, where he defeated Sextus Pompey.
    • The Harpax was an Iron Grapnel launched by a Ballista (Catapult), and attached by a rope to a winch. Once the grapnel gripped the enemy vessel, it was then hauled alongside and boarded.
14. Testudo
    • The Roman Army invented the Testudo (Tortoise), which had a similar function to that of the modern tank.
    • A group of soldiers raised their shields to form a defensive style of combat. Missiles, arrows and stones would bounce off the advancing Testudo.
    • The interlocking shields formed such a strong roof that, according to Dio Cassius, it could be used to bridge small gulleys so that the other legionaries could march over it, and even drive horses and vehicles across it
15. Cohort System
    • The Roman Army revolutionised warfare when it abandoned the Maniple System and adopted the Cohort System.
    • The Cohorts could now be moved around tactically during the Battle, and rotated through 90° or 180° to face a threat from a new direction, such as a cavalry attack.
    • Junior officers could now also make their own decisions and enforce them, based on what was happening at a local level, without losing valuable time waiting for instructions from a senior officer, as before.
16. Decimation
    • The first Army in the Ancient World to use Decimation as a punishment for soldiers was the Roman Army.
    • It was thought to be more humane to execute one in ten soldiers by the remaining nine men in their unit, than to execute the whole unit for cowardice.
    • There are nine known occasions on record in the Roman Army when the order for Decimation was given.
17. Roman Anchors
    • The majority of Roman Anchors were stone weights with a hole drilled to pass a rope through.
    • However, one of the anchors found in the Lake Nemi Roman Shipwrecks was identical to the modern ‘Admiralty Pattern Anchor’, and had a lead stock previously thought to have been a recent invention.
    • Before these anchors were discovered, it was not known that the Romans were so advanced in Anchor design.
    • The first Lake Nemi Anchor had Flukes made of Oak, and a Stock made of Lead, and iron tipped Flukes. This anchor is on display in the Museo delle Navi Nemi.
    • The second Anchor was made of Iron, had a Folding Stock made of Timber. It had a very similar design to the modern ‘Admiralty Pattern Anchor’.
18. The Welfare state
    • Augustus is thought to have been the first Ruler to permanently fix the Corn Dole to supply free Grain to 200,000 people in Rome, which had a population of 1,000,000, a third of which were Roman Slaves.
    • Grain was distributed either free, or very cheaply, through a system of money vouchers called ‘Tesserae Nummulariae’. These were small tablets or hollow wooden balls inscribed with numbers indicating their monetary value. The same voucher system applied for receiving free Money, Olive Oil and other commodities.
    • Trajan (98-117 CE) created the Alimenta Fund which was a very limited early form of the Welfare state, that applied only to Italy and not the Provinces. It supplied Funds, Food and Education for orphans and the children of the poor and lasted 150 years until the reign of Aurelian (270-275 CE).
19. Praesciptio
    • The Roman Bankers, known as Argentarii, appear to have operated a system of payment by cheque known as ‘Praesciptio’. There is scant information regarding this, but if true it would mean the Romans invented the cheque.

Existing Technologies and Systems developed in depth by the Romans (29)

1. Roman Aqueducts
   • Although they didn’t invent the aqueduct, the Romans pioneered and perfected supplying their cities with water from a source miles away crossing deep valleys by using stone bridges supported by arches, and occasionally, inverted syphons.
2. Roman Roads
   • The Romans were the first to link their empire by using the arched bridge made of stone and concrete to carry their roads over rivers. They paved them with an all weather surface.
   • All Armies in the Ancient World marched on the left to keep their right arm (sword arm) free. Consequently, Roman vehicles drove on the left.
3. Roman Concrete
   • The Nabataeans invented concrete which they used in small structures, but the Romans used concrete on a huge scale to create large buildings and giant underwater moles in harbours.
   • The Pantheon in Rome still holds the largest concrete dome from the Ancient World.
4. Roman Baths
   • The Romans didn’t invent Public baths, but they built some of the worlds biggest, with hot and cold rooms using water supplied by the aqueducts and heated by the Hypocaust.
5. Roman Town Planning
   • The Romans developed Town Planning based around a Forum and the Street Grid system, although the concept was borrowed from the Greeks.
6. Julian Calendar
   • The Ancient Egyptians invented the Solar Calendar of 365 days, but the Romans introduced it to Western Europe, replacing previous Lunisolar calendars.
7. Roman Coins
   • The Greeks invented the use of coins, but the Romans introduced the widespread use of coinage for trade and commerce in Western Europe, replacing the barter system.
8. Cursus Publicus
   • The Romans didn’t invent the Postal System, but they developed a highly effective system that kept Rome in daily communication with the Provinces.
   • It used relays of horses and riders operating out of inns and hotels. A system of maintenance kept the roads in good order.
9. Roman Siege Engines
   • The Roman Army adopted the Siege Engine from the Greeks and perfected it.
   • The Cheiroballistra was a Roman Siege Machine that consisted of a Torsion Catapult that shot metal bolts. There were a total of 55 in every Legion, as well as 10 large Siege Catapults known as Onagers.
   • They also developed the Siege Tower, used notably in the siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE, despite the defenders tunneling underneath it to undermine it.
10. Gladius
    • The Romans adopted the Iron sword from the Greeks and later the Celtiberians. The Gladius was primarily a stabbing sword for use in thrusting.
    • The Romans developed smelting techniques to make high quality iron swords with added carbon, which was a type of steel.
11. Roman Water Clocks
    • The Roman Army developed a sophisticated routine of Wake up Calls, Meals, Marching and Sleeping, which were fixed at predefined hours of the day, using water clocks.
    • It would appear that there was a clock in every legionary fort, although no description of the clock has survived. The army official responsible for maintaining time was called the Horologiarius.
12. Roman Firestarter
    • The Romans perfected a simple iron or steel striker shaped like a knuckle guard, which was used to strike against a flintstone and produce sparks that would ignite any flammable material.
    • All Roman households and every Roman Legionary would possess one.
13. Roman Canals
    • The Romans were prolific canal builders, some for irrigation, others to control flooding in river deltas, but also for inland navigation.
    • Lakes, streams and rivers were diverted along these canals to enable vessels to travel considerable distances. Trajan even built an early Suez Canal (c.112 CE) that connected the Nile with the Red Sea.
14. Roman Glass
    • Roman Glass manufacture initially copied Greek methods producing colored glass vessels such as cups and vases.
    • By the 1st century CE, the price had dropped and glassware was available in every Roman household.
15. Roman Pizza
    • The Romans made various types of Pizza in their Bakeries.
    • Unleavened bread called Maza or Panis Focacius would be covered with various toppings and sold on the street.
16. Roman Wine
    • China holds the earliest evidence (7,000 BCE) of a fermented drink based on a mix of wine and rice.
    • Evidence has also been found of regular wine production in Georgia (6,000 BCE), Azerbaijan (5,000 BCE), Greece, Sicily and Armenia (4,500-4,000 BCE). The Gauls were making wine 500 years before Gaul became a Roman Province.
    • In Roman Society, wine was considered to be part of a healthy diet and had a medicinal, social and religious role. It has been estimated that every man, woman and slave would have consumed a bottle of wine a day.
    • Consequently, the Romans perfected the art of winemaking and wrote in great detail about their methods.
17. Roman Chariot Races
    • The Romans adopted Chariot Racing from the Greek Hippodromes which had 10 or more teams.
    • In the Roman Circus, 4 teams of Charioteers competed, known by their colours, the Blue, Red, Green and White Teams. The fans wore their team’s colours.
    • The Circus Maximus in Rome could hold up to 250,000 spectators.
18. Roman Room
    • Although the Ancient Greeks were famed for memorising long speeches using The Method of Loci (which means ‘places’ in Latin), it was also used in Ancient Rome and is referred to in both ‘De Oratore’ by Cicero and in ‘Institutio Oratoria’ by Quintilian.
    • The ‘Roman Room’ is a technique for memorising a large quantity of information without writing anything down. Roman Orators could speak for hours in the Senate without using notes.
19. Circumvallation and Contravallation
    • He may not have invented it but Julius Caesar perfected this siege technique at the siege of Alesia, during the Gallic Wars in 52 BCE.
    • It was a series of lines of embankments and entrenchments with towers at intervals, facing the besieged, with an 11 mile (18km) wall four metres high, encircling the city of Alesia, to prevent entry or escape.
    •  Julius Caesar then built a second line of fortifications called a Contravallation. This was 13 miles (21km) long, facing away from the city, with four Cavalry Camps, designed to protect the besiegers from an allied army attempting to break through the siege. Alesia fell.
20. Roman Census and Roman Taxes
    • The first known Census was recorded by the Babylonians in 3,800 BCE and noted the numbers of the population and their possessions. The Roman Republic held a Census every 5 years between 435 BCE and 28 BCE, just to keep a record of eligible men for military service.
    • Under Augustus, the Roman Empire abandoned the use of Tax Collecters (the Publicani) and developed the Census to institute a comparatively advanced Tax System using Flat Rate levies.
    • From 28 BCE the Census was held every 14 years and was used to assess taxes by keeping a record of all those eligible for taxation and the value of their Property and Land. Each individual City was then instructed to pay a certain amount of Taxes. As Slaves did not pay taxes, they were not included in the Census.
21. Roman Lottery
    • The first Public lottery on record is from the Han Dynasty (205-187 BCE) in China. Lottery coupons have been found from this Period which raised money for large projects, such as the Great Wall of China.
    • However, the first Public Lottery on record in Western Europe was conducted by the Romans under Augustus (27 BCE-14 CE).
    • Repairs to the municipal buildings in Rome had become essential, but increasing the already high taxation risked a backlash. Instead Augustus held a Public Lottery, where the winners did not receive money, but won prizes consisting of items of varying worth.
22. Roman Abacus
    • The Roman Abacus was based on the earlier Greek and Babylonian Abacus.
    • The difference being that it was the first portable abacus and it used Roman Numerals.
    • The Roman Abacus was used by Merchants, Engineers and Government Officials.
23. Inverted Siphon
    • The Syphon was used much earlier in the Palace of Knossos (1900-1400 BCE) in Crete.
    • The Romans perfected the Inverted Syphon as a technique for getting an Roman Aqueduct to cross a valley without using a bridge.
    • In the Aqueduct du Gier in Gaul, the water entered a water tank in a sunken Castellum before flowing through four pipelines that descended to the valley floor, crossed the river on a small bridge, then rose up the other side to another water tower that was slightly lower than the first tank.
24. Roman Fire Brigade
    • It was based on a Fire Brigade that operated in Alexandria in Egypt.
    • Known as the Vigiles Urbani, the Roman Fire Brigade protected Rome and the ports of Ostia and Portus. It consisted of a Brigade of 3,500 men divided into 7 cohorts of 500 men, each covering 2 of Rome’s 14 Districts.
    • The Firemen had pumps, buckets, hooks for pulling down burning material, picks, mattocks and axes.
    • The Siphonarius operated a water pump called a Siphon and was assisted by the Aquarius who was in charge of the water supply.
25. Standing Army
    • Before the Romans, Standing Armies were maintained by the:
      • Akkadian Empire under Sargon of Akkad (c.2234-2279) BCE.
      • Sparta (Ancient Greece) between c.650-146 BCE.
      • Qin Dynasty in China from 221 BCE onwards.
    • The Roman Standing Army was established by:
      • Augustus in 27 BCE and lasted until the end of the Roman EmpireEmpire in 476 CE.
      • The practice was continued by the Eastern Roman Empire between 330 CE until 1453 CE.
26. The Bikini
    • The Bikini is a women’s two piece swimsuit that has been found on depictions of Goddesses as early as 5,600 BCE and on urns from Ancient Greece.
    • Several Roman mosaics depict the Bikini in use during the Roman Empire:
    • The mosaic found in the House of Julia in Pompeii shows a statue of the Goddess Venus wearing a Bikini. And the Villa Romana del Casale in Sicily has a mosaic showing ten women athletes wearing the Bikini. However, it is uncertain that Roman women in general wore them.
27. Ptolemy's Star Catalogue
    • The Almagest contains a Star Catalogue based on the Geocentric System (The Sun revolving around the Earth) which lists 48 Constellations and contains the observation of Sunspots.
    • Most of his Work acknowledges the work of Hipparchus (c.190-120 BCE), or is believed to be derived from his work.
    • Ptolemy’s Theories were still accepted by the Medieval World and were not challenged until 1543 CE by Nicolaus Copernicus with the Heliocentric System (The Sun at the centre of the Universe).
28. Roman Law
    • Between 27 BCE-250 CE the Roman Legal System developed into its greatest level of refinement, and is known as the ‘Classical Period of Roman Law’. The Roman Legal System has had a strong influence on modern legal systems.
    • Antoninus Pius (138-161 CE) He introduced the concept that prisoners were ‘Innocent until proven Guilty’ before the Trial.
    • In c. 160 CE, the Roman Jurist Gaius developed the triple concept of private law, based on persons (personae), things (res) and legal actions (actiones).
29. Roman Mosaic
    • The first known Mosaic was found in a Temple in Mesopotamia and dates from the 3rd Millenium BCE.
    • The Ancient Greeks used small stones to create Mosaics with elaborate patterns as did the Ancient Syrians.
    • However, it was the Ancient Romans who perfected the technique of using same sized glass or tile cubes to reproduce elaborate scenes and depict persons and creatures from mythology or ordinary life.

New Technologies not invented or used by the Romans

1. The Zero
   • Roman Numerals have no zero, but continued to be used in the West until c. 1,300 CE.
   • After this they were replaced by Arabic Numerals, because using a zero makes calculations much easier.
2. The Stirrup
   • The Roman Saddle was similar to the saddle of today except that it had no Stirrups. Instead there were four corner posts holding the Rider firmly in position.
   • The Stirrup did not appear in Europe until the 6th century CE, and is one of the many Chinese Inventions.
3. Antikythera Mechanism
   • The Antikythera Mechanism is the world’s oldest known geared device dating from c. 87 BCE, and appears to be the world’s first computer.
   • It was found by divers in the Antikythera Shipwreck off the Greek Island of Antikythera between 1900-1901.
   • It has over 30 gears and by rotating a crank that showed a date, the positions of the Sun, Moon and the Five known Planets could be predicted. It also predicted the Solar Eclipse and the Lunar Eclipse, using the Saros Cycle, and the date of the Olympic Games.
4. Great Pyramid
   • The Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World and was the tallest building in the Ancient World until 1311 CE.
   • It was constructed using an estimated 2,300,000 stone blocks each weighing around 2.5 tons, and cut from a quarry nearby. These were assembled in 201 stepped layers which were covered with an outer casing of polished limestone blocks.
   • No written record of its method of construction has survived.
   • Its purpose, and how it was constructed with such accuracy, continues to mystify Archeologists, Astronomers and Mathematicians, who can only theorise as to the methods used.
5. Stonehenge
   • Stonehenge is a Henge Monument in Wiltshire, England, located 8 miles (12km) north of Salisbury.
   • It consists of a ring of Standing Stones built during the Bronze Age, between 2,600 and 2,300 BCE, with the entrance aligned to the Winter Solstice. Stonehenge may have been an astronomical observatory.
   • Originally, between 2,600-2,300 BCE Stonehenge consisted of an estimated 80 ‘Bluestones’ weighing between 2 to 4 tons each, and arranged in a double circle. These ‘Bluestones’ were brought from 150 miles (240km) away, quarried from Carn Menyn, a mountain peak in the Preseli Hills, Pembrokeshire, Wales
   • The purpose of the Monument and how the Stones were brought from so far remains a mystery to Archeologists.
6. Inventions from Ancient China
   • China is noted for having made four great inventions: Paper (105 CE), the Compass (1st century CE), Gunpowder (7th century CE) and Printing (7th century CE), first with a woodblock then with moveable type.
   • China also produced many other Inventions such as Acupuncture, the stern mounted Rudder and Sky Lanterns, to name but a few.

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