Britannia

• Roman Britannia was the ‘Insulae Britanniae’ meaning ‘Island of Britain’ and also known as ‘Albion’.
• It was a Roman Province for 367 years, between 43-410 CE.

1. History

• Pre-Roman history:
  • Britain was known to the Greeks as the ‘Cassiterides’, meaning the Tin Islands, which included Ictis and Mictis.
  • It was visited by Himilco, the Carthaginian sailor in the 5th Century BCE and Pytheas, the Greek sailor in the 4th Century BCE.
  • Britain was possibly the mythical Hyperborea. Writing in the 4th century BCE, Hecataeus of Abdera described Hyperborea as an island in the Ocean no smaller than Sicily and beyond the land of the Celts which had a circular Temple, possibly meaning Stonehenge or Avebury.
• Timeline of Britannia’s Acquisition by Rome (55 BCE-43 CE):
• Julius Caesar’s Invasions under the Roman Republic:
  • 55 BCE Caesar's First Invasion of Britannia
  • 54 BCE Caesar's Second Invasion of Britannia
  • 54 BCE The beginning of Roman Client Kingdoms in Britannia.
• Planned Invasions under the Roman Empire:
  • Augustus:
    • In 34 BCE, 27 BCE, 25 BCE and 9 CE, Augustus planned to invade Britannia but cancelled each time due to revolts elsewhere.
    • The Invasion of 34 BCE was cancelled due to a Revolt in Dalmatia followed by the War against Egypt in 31 BCE.
    • The Invasion of 9 CE was cancelled by the disastrous Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in Germania where three Legions were lost.
  • Caligula:
    • In 39-40 CE, Caligula also planned an invasion of Britannia, and assembled the Legions of Germany on the Channel Coast, and built the Boulogne Roman Lighthouse at Bononia in c. 40 CE, in readiness for the Invasion.
    • Suetonius stated that he changed his mind, and ordered the troops to collect sea shells instead and to bring them back to Rome.
• Acquisition by Rome:
• The Roman Conquest of Britannia (43 CE):
  • In 43 CE Emperor Claudius invaded under the pretext of re-installing King Verica, who had been exiled by the Atrebates, with 4 Legions:
    • Legio II Augusta, Legio VIII Augusta, Legio XIV Gemina, and the Legio XX Valeria Victrix.
  • In 43 CE Claudius took the submission of 11 British Kings accompanied by an Elephant at Gosbecks Park near Colchester.
  • This had been the Capital of King Cunobelin, known as ‘Britannia Rex’ meaning ‘King of the Britons’ who had united the Trinovantes and Catevallauni and was expanding westwards.
  • London did not then exist. The Romans built Colchester as the first Capital of Britannia. It was later moved to London (Londinium) after Boudicca's Revolt in 60 CE.
• Resistance to the Occupation (43-61 CE):
  • 43-51 CE Caratacus
    • The King of the Britons led a resistance to the Roman Occupation for eight years until he was defeated, taken prisoner and sent to Rome.
  • 60-61 CE Boudicca's Revolt
    • Queen Boudicca’s Revolt almost succeeded but her army was defeated at the Battle of Watling Street.
• Agricola’s Conquest of Northern Britain (77-63 CE):
  • In 77 CE, Vespasian appointed Agricola as Governor of Britain
  • In 77 CE Agricola occupied Anglesey for the first time, since the attempt in 60 CE by Suetonius Paulinus which had been thwarted by Boudicca's Revolt.
  • In 79 CE Agricola moved his Legions into Caledonia.
  • In 83 CE Agricola confronted the 30,000 soldiers of the Caledonian army at the Battle of Mons Graupius, but although the Romans were victorious, 20,000 of the Caledonian army escaped.
  • Briefly, the whole of Britannia was united, and then almost immediately released, when Agricola was recalled in 85 CE.
• Hadrian's Wall (122-128 CE)
  • 119-121 CE Revolts and invasions led to Hadrian ordering the construction of a stone Wall running east-west from the Irish Sea at Bowness-on-Solway to the North Sea at Wallsend, Newcastle, with the Wall being named after him.
• Antonine Wall (138-142 CE)
  • 138-142 CE, The construction of a Turf and Stone Wall between modern Glasgow and Edinburgh was ordered by the Emperor Antoninus Pius, with the Wall being named after him.
• Timeline of the Province of Britannia:
• The Occupation lasted for 367 years, from 43-410 CE.
  • 60-61 CE Queen Boudicca's Revolt
  • 61 CE Capital moved from Colchester to London (Londinium)
  • 83 CE Agricola’s Invasion of Scotland and construction of the Inchtuthil Legionary Fortress.
  • 118 CE An uprising of the northern Brigantes and the Scottish Selgovae and possible Sea-Invaders, was suppressed by the Governor Falco. Many British coastal cities were burnt.
  • 119-121 CE Further major uprisings continued.
  • 122-6 CE Hadrian's Wall built
  • 138-142 CE Antonine Wall built.
  • 197-212 CE Britannia was divided into two Provinces, Britannia Inferior and Britannia Superior.
  • 260-274 CE Britannia was part of the breakaway Gallic Empire of Postumus, Governor of Germania Inferior and Germania Superior.
  • 286-296 CE The Carausian Revolt: Carausius, Commander of the Classis Britannica declared independence. He was replaced in 293 CE by Allectus, who in turn, was defeated by Constantius I Chlorus, father of Constantine I.
  • c.290 CE Legio II Augusta left Britannia and permanently dismantled Caerleon Roman Fort, although a unit appears to have remained at Richborough.
• After Diocletian’s Reforms (297 CE):
  • From 293 CE, the Province was subdivided again into four Provinces under Diocletian and the Tetrarchy.
  • 306 CE The Legio VI Victrix proclaimed Constantine I as the next Roman Emperor at York, after his father Constantius I Chlorus died there.
  • 312 CE Constantine I became Roman Emperor at Rome, after the Battle of Milvian Bridge.
  • 367 CE The Great Conspiracy, a coordinated Invasion by the Scots, Picts and Saxons.
• After the death of Theodosius (395 CE) and the final split into Eastern Empire and Western Empire:
  • 408 CE The remaining two Legions, Legio XX Valeria Victrixand Legio VI Victrix, were all taken to Trier in Gallia Belgica, by the usurper Constantine III and never returned.
  • 408-9 CE An unprotected Britannia was then devastated by Saxon raids.
  • According to Zosimus and Gildas, the consequence was that Britannia, furious that Rome had not protected them, revolted against Roman Rule and Law, and expelled all the Roman Magistrates from the British cities, .
• End of Roman Rule (410 CE)
• 409-410 CE Rescript of Honorius:
  • The Emperor Honorius sent a letter, known as the Rescript of Honorius, telling the Britons that they must look after their own defence. This is considered to be the date ending Roman Rule in Britannia.
• 446-454 CE The Groans of the Britons:
  • A final appeal dated between 446-454 CE was sent to the Roman Military to assist the Britons against invasions by the Picts and the Scotii. It is thought to have been addressed to the Magister Militum Aetius, but may have been addressed to Aegidius, Ruler of the Kingdom of Soissons (457-486 CE).

Famous Persons from this Province:

• Queen Boudicca
• Cunobelin (Shakespeare's Cymbeline)

Chief archeological Finds:

• Bronze Age: (3,000-55 BCE)
  • Stonehenge, Avebury, Silbury hill, Grime's Graves, Cissbury Ring, The Ridgeway, British Camp and Maiden Castle.
• Roman Empire: (43-410 CE)
  • Hadrian's Wall, Antonine Wall, Stanegate, Caerleon, Chester, York, Inchtuthil Legionary Fortress, Bath, Fishbourne Roman Palace and Dover Roman Lighthouse.
• Roman Hoards:
  • Beau Street Hoard, Hoxne Hoard, Corbridge Hoard, and Vindolanda Tablets.

2. Geography

• Capital City:
  • Colchester (Camulodunum) (43-60 CE)
  • London (Londinium) (61-410 CE) where the Roman Legate resided.
• Chief Cities:
• The South:
  • Bath (Aquae Sulis), Caistor St Edmund (Venta Icenorum), Canterbury (Durovernum), Chichester (Noviomagus), Cirencester (Corinium Dobunnorum), Gloucester (Glevum), Rochester, Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum), St. Albans (Verulamium) and Winchester (Venta Bulgarum).
• The North:
  • Chester (Deva), Carlisle (Luguvalium), Lincoln (Lindum), Newcastle (Pons Aelius), York (Eburacum).
  • Wales:
  • Caerleon (Isca Augusta), Caernarfon (Segontium), Carmarthen (Moridunum Demetarum).
• Location Today:
  • England and Wales
  • English Place Names with Roman Origins
• Neighbouring Roman Provinces or Countries:
  • Gallia Belgica
    • Sea Crossing between Richborough and Boulogne.
  • Frontier with the independent country of Caledonia.
  • Frontier of the Irish Sea with independent Hibernia.
• Climate and Temperature Today:
• England:
  • Maritime Temperate Climate due to the Gulfstream:
    • Winter temperatures are rarely below 0°C, Summer temperatures rarely above 32°C.
    • In the Autumn and winter Atlantic Low pressure systems can bring Gales, heavy rain, showers and thunderstorms. Rainfall occurs throughout the year, and is higher in the west and north.
• Wales:
  • Slightly wetter and milder than England.
• Scotland:
  • Much cooler and more rain.
• Main Straits:
  • Menai Strait, Strait of Dover, North Channel, St. Georges Channel, Pentland Firth, Solway Firth.
• Main Rivers:
  • River Severn, 220 miles (354km), Thames, 215 miles (346km), Trent, 185 miles (297km), Great Ouse, 143 miles (230km), Wye, 135 miles (217km).
  • Ure and Ouse, 129 miles (207km), Nene, 100 miles (161km), Tweed, 96 miles (154km), Avon, 96 miles (154km), Eden, 90 miles (145km), Bristol Avon, 75 miles (120km), Ribble, 75 miles (120km), Tyne, 73 miles (117km), Derwent, 72 miles (116km), Aire, 71 miles (114km), Tees, 70 miles (112km), Medway, 70 miles (112km), Mersey, 70 miles (112km), Dee, 70 miles (112km), Don, 70 miles (112km).
  • The Pennine Mountain range makes English rivers run either to the east or to the west.
• Mountain Ranges:
• In England:
  • Pennines, Chilterns, Malverns, Mendips, Cotswolds, North and South Downs, Yorkshire and Lincolnshire Wolds, Peak District, Lake District, The Moors, Quantock and Shropshire Hills.
• In Wales:
  • Brecon Beacons, Cambrians, Snowdonia.
• Islands of England:
  • Isle of Wight, Isle of Portland, Isle of Sheppey, Hayling Island, Thorney Island, Portsea Island, Scilly Isles, St. Michael's Mount, Looe Island, Burgh Island, Lindisfarne.
  • Unoccupied islands: Farne Islands, Islands of Furness, Lindisfarne, Lundy.
  • In Roman Times, the Sea reached from Pevensey to Folkstone, and Thanet was a separate Island whose approaches were defended by Roman Coastal Forts. The Isle of Thanet is no longer an island today. The Isle of Ely is no longer an island, since the Middle Ages.
• Islands of Wales:
  • Anglesey (Mona) Acquired in 77 CE.
• The Isle of Man:
  • Isle of Man was known as Monapia. It was not occupied by the Roman Military.
• The Channel Islands:
  • The Channel Islands were known as ‘Insulae Lenuri’ and occupied in 60 CE.
  • Jersey (Caesarea), Guernsey (Sarnia), Alderney (Riduna), Sark and Herm, Jethou, Brecqhou and Lihou.
• Islands of Scotland:
  • Inner Hebrides (Hebudes, not occupied).
  • Outer Hebrides (Haebudes, not occupied).
  • Orkney Islands (Orcades, briefly occupied in 82-83 CE)

3. Political Organisation

• Province Type
  • Imperial Proconsular then subdivided 3 times.
• Governor
  • Proconsul,
    • then in 197 CE divided between a Proconsul and a Propraetor
    • then in 293 CE sub-divided again:
  • 43-197 CE:
    • Britannia:
      • Imperial Proconsular (43-197 CE): Proconsul
      • Capital at London (Londinium), then split into:
  • 197-212 CE:
    • Britannia Inferior (197-212 CE): Propraetor
      • Capital at York (Eboracum)
    • Britannia Superior (197-212 CE): Proconsul
      • Capital at London (Londinium), then split into:
  • 293-408 CE:
  • Britannia Inferior was then split into:
    • Flavia Caesariensis (293-408 CE)
      • Capital at Lincoln (Lindum)
    • Britannia Secunda (293-408 CE)
      • Capital at York (Eburacum)
  • Britannia Superior was then split into:
    • Britannia Prima (293-408 CE):
      • Capital at Cirencester (Corimium Dobunnorum) (uncertain). The Largest of the four Provinces, it included Wales and the West country.
    • Maxima Caesariensis (293-408 CE): Proconsul.
      • Capital at London (Londinium)
  • Valentia: (369-c.408 CE)
    • A fifth Consular Province set up by Count Theodosius and possibly named after the ruling Emperor, Valentinian I.
      • Capital at Carlisle (Luguvalium Carvetiorum). Its Territory is uncertain, but may have been the area between Hadrian's Wall and the Antonine Wall.
• Governors of Britannia
  • Governors of Britannia
• Tribes and Population:
  • England:
    • Catuvellauni, Atrebates, Iceni, Brigantes, Trinovantes, Belgae, Cantiaci, Regni, Durotriges, Dobunnii, Dumnonii, Coritani. Parisi.
  • Wales:
    • Silures, Ordovicis, Deceangli, Demetiae, Cornovii.
  • Scotland:
    • Votadini, Seigovae, Novantae, Damnonii, Epidii, Venicones, Vacomagi, Taexaii, Decaniae, Lugi, Cerones, Creones, Garnonacae, Carini, Cornavii, Smertae
• Language:
  • Celtic and Welsh (a similar related language was also spoken in Galatia in Turkey)
• Roman Client Kingdoms in Britannia
  • In 54 BCE, Caesar’s Second Invasion of Britannia established several Roman Client Kingdoms.
  • The sons of the Client Kings, such as Cunobelin, were often brought up in Rome and when they inherited their kingdoms they became Romanised Kings.

4. Military Organisation

• Three Legionary Bases:
  • Caerleon (Isca Augusta):
    • Legio II Augusta
    • A Vexillation of this Legion is registered at Richborough in c.400 CE.
  • Chester (Deva):
    • Legio XX Valeria Victrix
  • York (Eburacum):
    • Legio IX Hispana replaced in 122 CE by:
    • Legio VI Victrix
• Hadrian's Wall:
  • A Stone wall with Towers, running 80 miles (128km) from Wallsend to Carlisle.
  • Several thousand Roman Auxiliaries between 128-c.410 CE. The Legions built the Wall, but did not man it.
  • York was the HQ for the Wall.
  • Stanwix Roman Fort, near Carlisle was the Forward HQ for the entire Wall.
• Stanegate:
  • This was the original defensive line south of the Rivers Eden and Tyne. Subsequently the line was moved north of the two rivers to become Hadrian's Wall.
• Antonine Wall:
  • This is an Earth wall with Towers between Glasgow and Edinburgh
  • It was occupied by Vexillations of the following Legions between 139-155 CE:
  • Legio VI Victrix, Legio XX Valeria Victrix, Legio II Augusta and the Legio XXII Primigenia.
  • It was vacated when Hadrian's Wall was reoccupied in 155 CE.
• Inchtuthil Legionary Fortress:
  • Legio XX Valeria Victrix (Between 82-83 CE and 86-87 CE)
  • A Vexillatio of the Legio II Adiutrix (86-87 CE)
  • Located on the River Tay in Scotland and defended by the Gask Ridge of signalling towers. It was abandoned in 87 CE then reoccupied briefly by Septimius Severus during his Invasion of Caledonia between 208-211 CE.
• Navy:
  • Classis Britannica
    • The Roman Navy in Britannia was based in the southeast.
  • Saxon Shore Forts
    • This was an anti Piracy chain of Forts in Southeastern England running from Portchester to the Wash. It was commanded by the Count of the Saxon Shore, possibly from London or Dover and manned by the Classis Britannica.
• Main Threats:
  • Invasion from Scotland and Piracy from the North Sea.
• Official Port of Entry to Britannia:
  • Richborough
    • Entry was through a Triumphal Arch inside the Fortress, and then via Watling Street (the modern A2) up to London, then on to Wroxeter.
    • The Fortress at Richborough was linked with the Fortress at Boulogne, where the Via Belgica ran directly to Cologne on the Rhine.

5. Economy

• Chief Exports:
  • Ingots of Tin, Lead, Copper, Silver and Gold.
  • Grain: this was exported to the nearby Roman Provinces by the 3rd century CE.
  • Wool and Woollen Products: the Birrus Britannicus and the Tapete Britannicum.
  • Jet: It was found on the beaches of Whitby, Yorkshire, and under the Romans, it was worked into Jewellery at York, then exported throughout the Roman Empire.
• Agriculture and Fishing:
  • Grain and Livestock, particularly sheep for wool..
• Manufacturing:
  • Woollen clothing:
    • The Birrus Britannicus, the Tapete Britannicum, the Pallium and Woollen Rugs.
    • There was a Procurator of the Wool Warehouses at both London and at Winchester.
• Mines:
  • Copper: Great Orme Copper Mine and Parys Mountain, Anglesey
  • Gold: Dolaucothi Gold Mine
  • Silver and Lead: Silver and Lead mine of Charterhouse
  • Chalk and Flint: Chislehurst Caves Chalk and Flint mine
  • Iron: Iron workings in the Weald of Kent, the Forest of Dean, County Durham, and Water Newton.
  • Tin: Tin Mines of Cornwall and the Tin Islands
• Mints:
  • London: Mint marks: L, LON, etc., under both Carausius (286-293 CE) and  Allectus (293-296 CE).
  • Clausentum: Mint Marks: C, CL. under Allectus 293-6 CE.
  • Colchester: Mint Marks: C, CL. Under both Carausius and Allectus 287-296 CE.

6. Transport

• Roman Roads:
  • Roman Roads of Britannia
  • Antonine Itinerary
• Waterways:
  • Longest navigable Rivers:
    • Severn: 220 miles (354km), Thames: 215 miles (346km), Trent: 185 miles (297km) and the Great Ouse: 143 miles (230km).
  • Car Dyke
    • A Roman canal connecting the R. Ouse to the R. Cam.
  • Fos Dyke
    • A Roman canal connecting Lincoln and the R. Witham to the R. Trent.
• Ports:
• The South:
  • Colchester (Camulodunum), Dunwich (now underwater), London (Londinium), Rochester (Durobrivae Cantiacorum), Richborough (Rutupiae), Dover (Dubris), Lympne and Pevensey (now both inland), Chichester (Noviomagus), Portchester (Portus Adurni), Clausentum at Southampton, Wareham, Caerleon (Isca Augusta), Sea Mills (Portus Abonae) at Bristol, Gloucester (Glevum).
• The North:
  • Carlisle (Luguvallum), Chester (Castra Deva), Lancaster (Calunium), Newcastle (Pons Aelius), York (Eboracum).
  • Wales:
  • Caerleon (Isca Augusta), Caernarfon (Segontium), Caer Gibi, Anglesey (unknown), Carmarthen (Moridunum Demetarum).
• Ancient Trade Routes:
  • Poole Harbour overland to Bristol and Wales.
  • Anglesey to Ireland.
  • Dover to Boulogne: Strait of Dover (Fretum Gallicum)
  • Poole Harbour and Southampton to the mouth of the River Seine in Gaul.
• Number of Days taken to travel from this Province to Rome:
  • Six weeks.

7. Relationship with Rome

• Britannia was one of the most difficult Provinces to control as it was continually threatened by Northern invasions and piratical attacks, which led to the construction of two Walled Frontiers in the North.
• From the 3rd century CE onwards, cities were given protective Walls and the south coast Forts were rebuilt. The Province was lost briefly between 260-274 CE under the breakaway Gallic Empire of Postumus. It was lost again between 286-293 CE when Carausius declared Independence, then was replaced by Allectus.
• The occupation lasted for 367 years, from 43 CE to 410 CE. Despite Revolts and losing the Province several times, Rome always returned to occupy it.

8. History of Christianity in this Province

• Gildas:
  • The 6th century CE British Historian, stated that Christianity had arrived during the reign of Tiberius (14-37 CE), and so prior to the Invasion of 43 CE.
• Martyrs under the Diocletianic Persecution (303 CE to 313 CE).
  • St Albans of Verulamium (St. Albans today) who may possibly have been martyred during the earlier Persecution of Christians under Septimius Severus between 202-211 CE.
  • Aaron and Julius of Carlisle were executed in Caerleon, where a chapel was erected to their memory.

9. Roman Authors describing this Province

• Diodorus Siculus (c.90-30 BCE)
  • He described the Tin Islands of south west Britain before it was occupied.
• Tacitus: ‘Agricola’ (98 CE)
  • This Work covers the life of his Father-in-law and his military conquests in Britannia.

10. DvD

• The Eagle IMDb (2011)
  • From the Novel by Rosemary Sutcliff The Eagle of the Ninth (1954)
• Centurion IMDb (2010)
  • About the disappearance of the Legio IX Hispana.
• The Last Legion IMDb (2007)
  • with Colin Firth and Ben Kingsley. Based on the book L’Ultima Legione (2002) by Valerio Massimo Manfredi.
• Boudica, The Warrior Queen IMDb (2003)
  • with Alex Kingston and Emily Blunt.

Britannia